The environment of evolutionary adaptedness is significantly different from modern society. [22] If there are repeated encounters between the same two players in an evolutionary game in which each of them can choose either to "cooperate" or "defect," then a strategy of mutual cooperation may be favored even if it pays each player, in the short term, to defect when the other cooperates. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. [119] Moral indignation may have evolved to prevent one's altruism from being exploited by cheaters, and gratitude may have motivated present day humans' ancestors to reciprocate appropriately after benefiting from others' altruism. Changes of this kind are more likely to be passed on to the next generation (natural [29] However, all around the world small-band hunter-gatherers offer a similar developmental system for the young ("hunter-gatherer childhood model," Konner, 2005; of other primates. 2010; Buss, 2005; Durrant & Ellis, 2003; Pinker, 2002; Tooby & Cosmides, 2005. Defenders of the truth: The battle for science in the sociobiology debate and beyond. Parental investment and sexual selection. Foundational areas of research in evolutionary psychology can be divided into broad categories of adaptive problems that arise from the theory of evolution itself: survival, mating, parenting, family and kinship, interactions with non-kin, and cultural evolution. Most contents and processes of the brain are unconscious; and most mental problems that seem easy to solve are actually extremely difficult problems that are solved unconsciously by complicated neural mechanisms. Evolutionary psychology and cognitive neuropsychology are mutually compatible – evolutionary psychology helps to identify psychological adaptations and their ultimate, evolutionary functions, while neuropsychology helps to identify the proximate manifestations of these adaptations. From an evolutionary perspective, the fact that people have fundamental differences in personality traits initially presents something of a puzzle. [41] Evolutionary psychologists respond that they are working within a nature-nurture interactionist framework that acknowledges that many psychological adaptations are facultative (sensitive to environmental variations during individual development). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [75] Finally, like many other psychological adaptations, personality traits may be facultative – sensitive to typical variations in the social environment, especially during early development. [62], Consciousness meets George Williams' criteria of species universality, complexity,[63] and functionality, and it is a trait that apparently increases fitness. [135] (Some individuals with bipolar disorder are especially creative during their manic phases and the close relatives of people with schizophrenia have been found to be more likely to have creative professions. 2009. For example, adult attachment style seems particularly sensitive to early childhood experiences. [146][147] It has also been suggested by critics that evolutionary psychologists' theories and interpretations of empirical data rely heavily on ideological assumptions about race and gender. They see step parental care as primarily "mating effort" towards the genetic parent.[108]. 161-184. [123], According to Paul Baltes, the benefits granted by evolutionary selection decrease with age. [44] Researchers look to existing hunter-gatherer societies for clues as to how hunter-gatherers lived in the environment of evolutionary adaptedness. [109] The first component is called classical fitness by Hamilton (1964). The bigger the brain, the better-equipped you are to cope with the social machinations involved in survival and [72], Cognition refers to internal representations of the world and internal information processing. [27] As with adaptations in general, psychological adaptations are said to be specialized for the environment in which an organism evolved, the environment of evolutionary adaptedness. social group. Aurelio José Figueredo, Paul Robert Gladden, Zachary Hohman. [74] (Note: The field of behavioral genetics is concerned with statistically partitioning differences between people into genetic and environmental sources of variance. Coalitional psychology offers falsifiable ex ante prediction by positing five hypotheses on how these psychological adaptations operate:[144], Critics of evolutionary psychology accuse it of promoting genetic determinism, panadaptionism (the idea that all behaviors and anatomical features are adaptations), unfalsifiable hypotheses, distal or ultimate explanations of behavior when proximate explanations are superior, and malevolent political or moral ideas. Some critics have argued that researchers know so little about the environment in which Homo sapiens evolved that explaining specific traits as an adaption to that environment becomes highly speculative. Creativity may be a proxy for good genes. Trivers posited that differential parental investment led to the evolution of sexual dimorphisms in mate choice, intra- and inter- sexual reproductive competition, and courtship displays. historical process involving random inheritable changes. [96] Sex differences in parental effort are important in determining the strength of sexual selection. [139], Many conflicts that result in harm and death involve status, reputation, and seemingly trivial insults.

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